Organisational/Individual Environment Essay

The relationship between individuals and their workplace is largely determined by their motivation, the driving force behind actions. Therefore motivation is defined as the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (Robins,). Research conducted in this area has a subsequent effect on management styles. Motivation theories are basically divided in two basic categories. The earliest ones focused on content, what actually motivates people, were followed by process theories where the focus is on the actual process of motivation. Maslow(1943) introduced the hierarchy of need motivation theory which is the most widely established theory and it still influences management today. Maslow suggested that people have five kinds of needs namely physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-actualisation. People are trying to satisfy them following an ascending order. It is necessary to satisfy a lower ranked need in order to move to a higher ranked one. Maslow’s theory was been criticised as little evidence was in support of that theory. Most people tend to be partially satisfied at each level and partially unsatisfied. In early motivational research physiological needs were linked with money. Gellerman suggested that security safety needs can be provided through fringe benefits and as life insurance. Taylor (1911) placed great emphasis on money and argued that motivation comes from economic needs. He also proposed that a science should be developed for each element of a man’s work. However research has shown that for low pay workers money is not a good enough motivator. To what extend and how important depends clearly on personal circumstances Taylor tried to eliminate human mistakes at work. Taylor’s theory still influences production lines today. However in industry today workers are seen as humans and emphasis is given on their training and professional development. Smith (1999) conducted a study in order to evaluate the strength of financial incentives and the content of employment as motivators to work, in ancillary staff in the NHS and Hotel and Leisure industry. It was found that the rates of pay had very little influence on participants job satisfaction and subsequent work motivation despite the contrary belief of their line managers. This suggests lack of communication between management and staff and non-awareness of their needs. Training opportunities did exist for ancillary staff but there was little information on them. Farren recognised salry and fringe benefits as extrinsic motivation while as intrinsic motivation when the individual has the opportunity to use his own ability and appreciation. Money in the form of incentives is not an adequate motivator for people however Hersey & Blanchard (1982) recognised the symbolic value of money as the buying power they can attribute to individuals. In support of the abstract value of money McClelland suggested that there are four basic motives that drive individuals, achievement, power and affiliation and avoidance. It was observed that individuals, which are high achievers, prefer situations where they have personal responsibility for their performance, can receive clear and unambiguous feedback and the task is of moderate task difficulty. In this theory money were seen as symbolising successful task performance and goal achievement [cited in Mullins(2002)]. As far as social affiliation needs are concerned it is a common finding that people like to interact and be with others in situation where they feel comfortable. They tend to compose small informal groups in order to find support when they have no support over work. This can result in reduction of productivity in which management cannot have control over. However when strategic goals are in accord with individual ones then those informal groups can work to the benefit of management. Managers are then invited to find ways to attract employees in sharing company objectives. The need for esteem is associated with prestige and power that comes from the position that someone has or it can be personal. Lastly Self-actualisation refers to competence and achievement. Alderler condensed Maslow’s five needs into three and came up with existence which refer to physiological and safety needs, relatedness which refer to love and growth which refer to the higher ranked needs esteem and self actualisation. He suggested that they form more a continuum rather than being hierarchical in order. If satisfaction of needs at one level is blocked then attention should be focused on satisfaction of needs at other levels. Following the same example of ranking of needs Harberg developed theory X and Theory Y. Herzberg (1959) conducted a study of 203 Accountants and Engineers where he asked them to describe situations where they felt good or bad about their jobs. Findings have shown that people were dissatisfied with their jobs when hygiene factors (extra-job factors) like salary, interpersonal relationships, supervision, company policy, working conditions job security, status and factors in personal life were not satisfied. However when there was the opportunity for growth people were extremely satisfied with their jobs itself, thus when motivators where in place. . It is noticeable the opposite of satisfaction or dissatisfaction is not dissatisfaction or satisfaction accordingly but simply lack of it. When hygiene factors are satisfied for example it does not mean that workers will feel motivated. This study was replicated with different groups as well and similar findings were found Process theories that were developed later focus on the actual process of motivation. Hawthorne studies sponsored by Harvand University and directed by Elton Mayo signalled the need for management to study and understand relationships among people. It emphasised delegation of autonomy, employee autonomy, trust and openness, interpersonal dynamics, and co-operation instead of competition (Reis &Pena, 2001). Vroom(2000) has introduced the Expectancy theory. According to that theory effort, performance, reward and personal goals are inter-linked and interdependent. People are influenced by the expected results of their actions. The choice of behaviour is based on expectancy of most favourable consequences. To describe that feeling of anticipated satisfaction out of a specific outcome Vroom used the term ‘valence’. The Cognitive Evaluation theory, which was developed subsequently, could be applied to jobs, which are neither dull nor interesting. Here what is important is self-efficacy not job satisfaction thus setting and achieving goals. In that process self generated feedback is a more powerful motivator. In that process of setting up goals and achieving them Adams with the Equity Theory found that people tend to compare them selves with others and therefore concerned with fair treatment [cited at Anderson, 2002]. For example employees compare the rewards and promotional opportunities that they have with other employees, which can result in feelings of disappointment when they perceive their performance equal but the financial rewards unequal. As a result of feeling inequity individuals might change the inputs and outcomes or might even distort them cognitively. They might decide to leave the field or become aggressive and act on others unrelated to the subject of comparison. Finally they might decide to change the object of comparison. The individual thinks that he should be awarded in a certain way, what Porter and Lawler names perceived equitable reward. When the perceived equitable rewards are greater than the actual ones dissatisfaction occurs. That is a state of mind rather that a permanent condition. Farren suggests that when needs or expectations are hindered the individual can react with either a constructive behaviour or frustration. The outcomes of constructive behaviour leads to problem solving or restructuring while frustration can cause aggression, fixation, withdrawal or even displaced aggression where the person in question is directing his aggression to a colleague other than the one who is the source of frustration. Following on from goal setting as a motivator Thomas has developed the theory of Intrinsic Motivation were emphasis was placed on the source of motivation. Individuals have a motivation, which stems from them selves rather than imposed by managers when a) they have the right of choice and can select form different activities b) can show competence, thus that they can skilfully perform the chosen tasks. This adds meaning fullness to the task and the feeling that a worthy task purpose is created. As individuals advance in achieving the task’s purpose they can demonstrate some progress [cited in Mullins, (2002)] Douglas McGregor(1960)made a major contribution to the history of motivation theory with his Theory X and Theory Y. According to theory X, which is the one traditionally followed by managers, most people prefer to be directed. They are not interested in assuming responsibility, what they need is safety. Managers structure, control and supervise external control appropriate for immature workers. This theory is questioned because as we live in a democratic society, with an increasing level of education and standard of living people must be capable of a more mature behaviour. In Theory Y however it is suggested that people are not by nature lazy and unreliable but can be self-directed and creative if motivated. That creates an essential task for management, which is to unleash this potential in individuals. Properly motivated people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts towards accomplishing organisational goals. Argyris(1993) was in support of that theory and argued that following bureaucratic or pyramidal values leads to poor, shallow and mistrustful relationships. Humanistic and democratic values can nurture an environment for trusting and authentic relationships. Argyris suggests that as people grow up and mature the same process take place at work. People develop from a stage of dependency upon others as infants to a state or relative independence as adults. Their interests are becoming deeper and stronger. Furthermore they move from being subordinate to being equal or at a superior position. According to Argyris’ theoritical findings management is challenged to provide a work climate where everybody has the chance to grow and mature as individuals while working for the success of the organisation. In the 1980’s in America a new movement was to be initiated, Total Quality Management, which influenced management style of the two following decades greatly (Reis & Pena, 1999). It supported employee empowerment and decent treatment of people. After that movement the idea of re-engineering was due to influence management until today. According to that, work processes are re-thought and streamlined. Work satisfaction was to be enhanced by the creation of multi-skilled teams who accepted considerable responsibility. However as it was later proved in times of recession re-engineering became the synonymous of downsizing in businesses. Management was more interested in cutting costs by reducing work force and not improving the work processes. According to Reis & Pena ‘Management forgot the employee, the customer, and quality’ p. 673. Alternatively Reis & Pena suggest that managers should try and understand the people they work with and vice versa. The key here is to remove barriers to motivation. Rabey (2001) is warning us that there are some limits as to how much managers can motivate employees as they can only create the right environment for individuals to respond to motivation voluntary. Rabey continues by making some more practical suggestions about how to achieve that motivating environment in the workplace at different stages of employees’ work history from selection to retention. At the stage of interview he suggests that the interviewers as well as the interviewee must have an honest approach and disclose any information about the company and the applicant accordingly so that to achieve the best match. According to Rabey surveys of employees in recent years have shown that a workplace should meet some certain standards in order to stimulate motivation. These include goal setting, participation, recognition, and communication fair wages, training, teamwork and innovation. These preconditions for motivation are also included in the latest content theories, i.e Theory Y, Intrinsic Motivation, Expentacy Theory. Rabey goes one and defines the golden mean for a manager/leader. He reckons that a manager should be something between a manager where he manages and gets results from planning, control and compliance and a leader who leads and motivated followers choose to give commitment. Managers can play a unique role in building trust and co-operation with employees, which is the foundation to success. Tietjen and Myers(1998) conclude that ‘it is the work itself that brings fulfilment and Maslow’s higher order of needs into being’p.231. For management this means that they are challenged to create the necessary conditions so that the fulfilment gained from doing the job is expected daily. In the lines of effective interpe rsonal relationships at work Orpen (1997) found in a study that mentoring can improve motivation. Motivational research and organisational history suggests that management should adopt a more customer-focused style. During the last century research as well as management practice has moved from recognising as money incentives as the strongest motivator to placing emphasis on the employee and the intrinsic motivation that he has. The focus is now on the actual process of motivation and managers are called to create the necessary conditions in the workplace for their employees to achieve common company objectives. The ultimate goal is to have empowered workers, able to take an active role in the pursue of their career oriented goals and his objectives are in accordance with the ones shared by management. References Anderson, N. (Ed); O., Deniz S. (Ed); et-al. (2002). Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2: Organizational psychology. (pp. 53-76) Argyris,-Chris (1993) On Organisational Learning. Cambridge, MA, US: Blackwell Business/Blackwell Publishers. Hesley, P. & Blanchard, K. (4th edition) Management of Organisational Behaviour: Utilising Human Resources McGregor,-Douglas (1960) The human side of enterprise, New York, NY, US: McGraw-Hill. Mullins (2002), Management and Organisational Behaviour, 6th Edition, Pearson Education, pp 418- 448 Orpen, C. The Effects of formal mentoring on employee work motivation, organisational commitment and job performance in The Learning Organisation: An International Journal, 1997 Vol 4, No 2 pp. 53-60 Rabey G. B. Motivation is Response in Industrial and Commercial Training, 2001 Vol. 33, No 1 pp.26-28 Robins S. R. Organisational Behaviour (10th Edition) Pearson Smith, L. An Evaluation of programmes for staff motivation in NHS and hotel ancillary staff Facilities 1999, Vol 17, No 7/8 pp.264-271 Tietjen M. A. & Myers, R. M. Motivation and Job Satisfaction in Management Decision 1998, Vol 36 No 4, pp. 226-231 Vroom,V. H. Leadership and the decision-making process. Organisational-Dynamics. 2000 Vol 28(4): 82-94 Bibliography Wetherell M. (1996) Identities Groups and Social Issues Sage Publications: London